This paper will focus only on Machiavelli’s use of the word "virtù" in selected works. It will explore possible the origins, meanings, and motives behind that illusive word as it appears in those texts. Based on the conclusions arrived in this study and conclusions drawn from Machiavelli’s personal letters, the paper will also seek to find out if he actually lived according to the notion of virtù interpreted here. The word "virtù" will be italicized when it is being mentioned in its Machiavellian context.

Perhaps one of the greatest hurdles that can be placed in studying people of the distant past is not understanding the words those people spoke. These words may sometimes be in the form of pictures, or even symbols familiar to us today. Without knowing what the people being studied wanted to communicate to each other and the world around them, we can only go so far in investigating who they were. It can be especially frustrating if the group studied left much behind in writing; those words will remain indefinitely clouded in ambiguity.

Fortunately for us, Niccolò Machiavelli communicated much using many words we can understand over 400 years later. Equally fortunate for us, he also chose a beautiful language to express himself and used it in an equally pleasing way! While we are, for the most part, able to draw plausible conclusions about that Florentine based on his many correspondences with his society, any study of the man is bound to run into an eternal sand trap. We reach a point where some of his language is undecipherable—the intended purpose of the words he chose is incomprehensible to us in the year 2000. So the portrait painted by the collective study of this man around the world will remain incomplete, as if only his eyes were the missing feature. But what an important feature to omit! The eyes can tell us so much about a person.

Machiavelli’s peculiar use of the words "virtù" and "fortuna" are like the missing eyes of our hypothetical portrait. These terms are loaded with meaning, a meaning that perhaps only Machiavelli knew. They did not follow their standard and understood meanings in Machiavelli’s writings. These words also contain for us the definition of what it truly is to be Machiavellian; they can tell us more about what Machiavelli was all about, or how he ideally wanted to be perceived.

For the purposes of this paper, we will mostly concern ourselves with Machiavelli’s use and notion of virtù. He places the term strategically in certain contexts, especially when describing personages from Roman antiquity, but expands its in many other contexts. Although reading Machiavelli’s words in translation may sometimes fall short in delivering the author’s original intent, the very best translations do indeed leave us with the same uncertainty and frustration that an Italian version would. Whether retaining virtù in Italian or using the English equivalent virtue, the author’s implied meaning behind the word evades conventional standards.

It would be redundant to search for the meaning of virtù in a modern dictionary (although the results may be surprising) to search for the meaning Machiavelli assigned to it. One approach may be to examine if the word was used by Machiavelli’s contemporaries in a similar fashion. One investigation into the matter did produce results. Felix Gilbert suggested a fresh a look at a study expanded by Leonardo Olschki in 1947 who maintained that the term virtù may have had a medical connotation to it.¹ According to Gilbert, in those days the term "virtù," "signified the force which gave vitality to a living being, and on whose presence life and strength of the whole organism depended." ² While this definition appears to have no political bearing at all, Gilbert found the word used in such manner in a speech delivered by Florentine citizen Bernardo Rucellai to one of the pratiche called by the Gonfaloniere in the early 16^th century. In this speech, Rucellai was trying to persuade a change in the Florentine constitution:

In this case we see "virtù" used as a political simile. "Defense," and, "vigor," are English terms that can convey the meaning of "virtù" as stated above. It is interesting to note the simile Rucellai paints. The restoration of bodily virtù is like the raising of an army in an endangered state; the doctors, or government, should be concerned with strengthening the virtù, or defense. Although this interpretation may not fall in line with rhetoric past and new that discusses virtù in terms of morality and choices, Machiavelli’s use of the term is some of his personal letters does reinforce the word’s medical connotation.

Whereas this may be an accurate interpretation of the word, it does not really fit in a Machiavellian context as we will later see. The meaning is completely medical, albeit it has just been shown to be used figuratively in political conversation, and severely limits Machiavelli’s possible uses for it. In some of his other writings, virtù does seem to leap from its medical meaning to some other meaning Machiavelli had in mind. Giving the term such a firm and finite meaning would imply a fixed and concrete meaning to the word. Machiavelli’s use of the word, as will be shown later, was used in a much broader sense and even appeared to contradict itself at times.

Another possibility for the origin of Machiavelli’s virtù may be found in classical usage of the term. We know that Niccolò, like most men of his age, was a Renaissance man who favored the classics and sought for rebirth of classical thought and society. This is not only reflected in his writings but in writings and art from others as well. We know from his letters that one form of leisure for him was to get lost studying classical poets and history.⁴ For a man who shaped much of his Discourses (pun intended) and other writings around examples from antiquity, it may not be surprising if his idea of virtù was based on classical philosophy. But "classical philosophy" is such a broad term: exactly whose philosophy might have influenced Machiavelli?

One source of classical virtue lies with Aristotle. Although going through Aristotle’s philosophy is beyond this paper’s focus, Harvey Mansfield identifies those essential points of Aristotle’s thoughts on virtue in the Ethics that go against Machiavelli’s. The following is perhaps the most striking point Mansfield identifies:

Another weakness to citing Aristotle’s use of virtue, is that it precepts closely coincide with Christian morality. If we know anything about what Machiavelli considered admirable and cited as virtuous, those practices and behaviors do not always follow Christian morality. Machiavelli’s virtù and the Church’s notion of virtue are quite divergent.

While Aristotle’s reasoning of virtue may have been one contemplated by a Renaissance man, there is one factor that might have exempted Niccolò Machiavelli. In any instance where he cites antiquity, there seems to be a clear bias for that civilization born of the Italian peninsula. Countless examples, quotes, and anecdotes used by Machiavelli make references to Roman civilization and give little mention or importance to Greek civilization. He writes most proudly of the ancient Romans and does not extol the Greeks in the same manner as he does the Romans. < EXAMPLE ? >One can especially find favoritism in the use of Roman military leaders (e.g. Scipio) in many of Machiavelli’s references to antiquity. What helps our cause even more is that he declared that the ancient Romans in fact possessed virtù.

By Machiavelli’s account, he interpreted the actions of those Romans as being "virtuous," but did the Romans acknowledge the existence of this so-called virtù, or did Machiavelli simply interpret their actions as virtuous in his eyes? The answer to this question may lie in further study of Roman philosophy than in studying Machiavelli. If on his own, Machiavelli interpreted the deeds of the ancients to be virtuous (and at the same time was the first to do so), then we can say that this new notion of virtù originated from him. In other words, his idea of virtù was in fact Machiavellian; it was Niccolò’s unique creation. Machiavelli’s virtù would then have never been known to the ancients; they may have acted with virtù but could not have ever realized it.

If ancient virtù came from Machiavelli and not the Romans, then we must rely on what he wrote and how he used his examples. We must carefully read into the historical incidents where virtù is mentioned: What actions exemplified Machiavellian virtue and how are they justified? What kinds of people have been more prone to demonstrate virtù? In what context did Machiavelli use the term?

Looking into Machiavelli’s usage of the term in his writings is the basis of any study into possible meanings of the word assigned by the author. The examples that often accompany the word are even more important since they give us evidence of what constitutes virtù or what actions and events are deemed virtuous by Machiavelli. The first study will look into Machiavelli’s usage of the term in his personal letters. Of the extant letters, virtù appears six times and the other two times it is mentioned indirectly.⁶

As stated before, there are two instances where Machiavelli appears to use "virtù" within the medical context described by Gilbert. In a letter to Luigi Giucciardini from 29 November 1509, Machiavelli expresses concern over Jacopo’s fever:

Recall Rucellai’s use of "virtù" in reference to the strength of the body. Rucellai must have been pointing to the interior strength of the body (perhaps the immune system?); he mentions that doctors should be concerned with strengthening the virtù of the body. Machiavelli seems to use the word in a similar manner: the doctors are Jacopo’s virtù. Jacopo is already in a weakened state and therefore his virtù is weak; Jacopo has failed to fight off his illness once again. The ones who can now help him beat the fever are the doctors, whose collective virtù (in the form of medical knowledge) will help cure Jacopo.

Another instance where "virtù" is used in a similar fashion is in a letter to Cardinal Giovanni Lopez (12 February 1497), where Machiavelli asks the cardinal to restore rights to a property Fagna. He asks the cardinal to compare the worth of his family against the Pazzis:

Can the medical connotation of "virtù" be used here as well? In order to fully understand what this quote means, we also need to know what Machiavelli means by "spirit." In the letter Machiavelli also mentions that his family has always sought to preserve the cardinal’s honor and interests and downplays any role the Pazzis may have had in doing the same. Niccolò adds that if his family and the Pazzis were to have all else equal, generosity and perhaps this sense of honoring the cardinal interests will weigh more on the Machiavelli side. In other words, the Machiavellis’ generosity and spirit of intention is what the cardinal should be taking into consideration. If we now use virtù according to Gilbert (as an animating force), we can interpret "virtù of spirit" to be the motivation behind the Machiavellis’ intentions.

In both cases presented so far, "virtù" appears consistent with Rucellai’s usage and Gilbert’s definition. A common word that might substitute the word in both cases can be "strength." In these two letters Machiavelli uses the word in a connotation appropriate to the time. He does not use "virtù" in the same manner that causes confusion in The Prince but rather employs the word when talking about things that are linked to humans such as fever and spirit (Rucellai does the same). From these two letters we can deduce one possible meaning of the word for Machiavelli as well as his contemporaries.

Aside from corporal contexts, Machiavelli frequently used virtù in discussions about warfare.

• letter 219
• letter 222
• letter 241
• standard form of virtù? Letters 229 and 254
• hints at Machiavellian virtù? Letters 121 and 243

2. Prince

- examples of virtù

3. Discourses

-examples of virtù

4. Same or varying usage in studied works?